RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable energy sources are available free of cost, smooth during operationandclean source of energy. Renewable energy sourceshavelow operating and maintenance costand can be easily built.Solar and wind energy are almost widely used as the main renewable energy resource.Wind mills can be installed in bulk and later connected to national grid on commercial basis. On the other hand wind mills can also be installed by individual consumers to meet their loads. Solar cells can be used in homes and offices to generate electricity. Future aspects of solar and wind sources are bright and can play an important role in the world.

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BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE AND DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

An insulator or dielectric is a substance within which there are no mobile electrons necessary for electric conduction. However, when the voltage applied to such an insulator exceeds a certain value, then it breaks down and allows a heavy electric current (much larger than the usual leakage current) to flow through it. If the insulator is a solid medium, it gets punctured or cracked. The disruptive or breakdown voltage of an insulator is the minimum voltage required to break it down. Dielectric strength of an insulator or dielectric medium is given by the maximum potential difference which a unit thickness of the medium can withstand without breaking down. In other words, the dielectric strength is given by the potential gradient necessary to cause breakdown of an insulator. Its unit is volt/meter (V/m) although it is usually expressed in KV/mm. For example, when we say that the dielectric strength of air is 3 KV/mm, then it means that the maximum PD which one mm thickness of ...

EQUIPMENT OF STEAM POWER STATION

A modern steam power station is highly complex and has numerous equipment and auxiliaries. However, the most important constituents of a steam power station are: 1. Steam generating equipment 2. Condenser 3. Prime mover 4. Water treatment plant 5. Electrical equipment. 1. STEAM GENERATING EQUIPMENT: This is an important part of steam power station. It is concerned with the generation of superheated steam and includes such items as boiler, boiler furnace, super heater, economizer, air pre-heater and other heat reclaiming devices. (I) BOILER : A boiler is closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by utilizing the heat of coal combustion. Steam boilers are broadly classified into the following two types: (a) Water tube boilers (b) Fire tube boilers In a water tube boiler, water flows through the tubes and the hot gases of combustion flow over these tubes. On the other hand, in a fire tube boiler, the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes surrounded by water. Wate...

TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Single phase motors are manufactured in fractional kilowatt range to be operated on single phase supply and for use in numerous applications like ceiling fans, refrigerators, food mixers, hair driers, portable drills, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, sewing machines, electric shavers, office machinery etc. Single phase motors are manufactured in different types to meet the requirements of various applications. Single phase motors are classified on the basis of their construction and starting methods employed. The main types of single phase motors are: (a) Induction motors (b) Synchronous motors (c) Commutator motors The various types of motors under each class are shown as under: Repulsion, repulsion induction and reluctance start motors are not used these days, they have been largely replaced by split phase motors with special capacitors which can be designed to perform equally well as repulsion types. In addition they offer such advantages as lower cost and trouble fr...

Advantages of Per Unit System in Power System Analysis | Electrical Engineering

Advantages of Per Unit System in Power System Analysis In electrical power engineering, the per unit (p.u.) system is one of the most widely used techniques for analyzing and modeling power systems. It is a method of expressing electrical quantities — such as voltage, current, power, and impedance — as fractions of chosen base values rather than their actual numerical magnitudes. This normalization technique provides a universal language for system calculations, minimizing errors, simplifying transformer modeling, and enabling consistency across multiple voltage levels. Because of these benefits, the per unit system is essential in fault analysis, load flow studies, transformer testing, and short-circuit calculations . ⚡ What is the Per Unit System? The per unit system is defined as: Q u a n t i t y ( p u ) = A c t u a l V a l u e B a s e V a l u e Quantity_{(pu)} = \dfrac{Actual \ Value}{Base \ Value} Q u an t i t y ( p u ) = B a se ...

PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY FREQUENCY CONTROL IN POWER SYSTEMS

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Frequency Control in Power Systems Author: Engr. Aneel Kumar Keywords: frequency control, primary frequency control, automatic generation control (AGC), tertiary control, load-frequency control, grid stability. Frequency control keeps the power grid stable by balancing generation and load. When generation and demand drift apart, system frequency moves away from its nominal value (50 or 60 Hz). Grids rely on three hierarchical control layers — Primary , Secondary (AGC), and Tertiary — to arrest frequency deviation, restore the set-point and optimize generation dispatch. Related: Power System Stability — causes & mitigation Overview of primary, secondary and tertiary frequency control in power systems. ⚡ Primary Frequency Control (Droop Control) Primary control is a fast, local response implemented by generator governors (dro...

ELECTRIC MOTOR PRINCIPLES

The electric motor in its simplest terms is a converter of electrical energy to useful mechanical energy. The electric motor has played a leading role in the high productivity of modern industry, and it is therefore directly responsible for the high standard of living being enjoyed throughout the industrialized world. An electric motor’s principle of operation is based on the fact that a current- carrying conductor, when placed in a magnetic field, will have a force exerted on the conductor proportional to the current flowing in the conductor and to the strength of the magnetic field. In alternating current motors, the windings placed in the laminated stator core produce the magnetic field. The aluminum bars in the laminated rotor core are the current carrying conductors upon which the force acts. The resultant action is the rotary motion of the rotor and shaft, which can then be coupled to various devices to be driven and produce the output. Many types of motors are produced today. Un...

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type of fuel it will handle. Most fuel injection systems are for diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI’s programmable firmware has permitted common hardware to be used with different fuels. Carburetors were the predominant method used to meter fuel before the widespread use of fuel injection. A variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine. The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the air stream. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inj...

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